Stressors
Several studies describe how individuals encountered various environmental demands, also called stressors. They are organized as situational, interpersonal, or cultural.
Situational stressors
General situational stressors included limited economic means, race/ethnicity, gender, high commitment and the sacrifice of social lives, friendships, and life goals outside of the dance environment. Only a few articles describe how limited financial means and career uncertainty represent issues negatively affecting dancers’ development and potential future (Sanchez et al., 2013; Lopez, 2019). On the other hand, injuries are a much more discussed topic (Liederbach and Compagno, 2001; Kenny et al., 2019; van Winden et al., 2020; Pentith et al., 2021). Injuries negatively affect dancers in many ways, hindering training and performance, and thus, hampering the learning and development process (Macchi and Crossman, 1996). Also, dealing with an injury is mentally tough, and dancers’ mental states appear to influence how effectively these are coped with (Macchi and Crossman, 1996; Mainwaring et al., 2001; Kenny et al., 2019). Hence, studies stress the importance of therapists, sport psychologists, medical professionals, and teachers to provide a holistic approach to injury management (Macchi and Crossman, 1996; Mainwaring et al., 2001; Pollitt and Hutt, 2021).
Social support, not only within the dance training environment but also outside the dance environment, such as from parents and other family members is of importance to motivation, learning and coping with situational stressors (Sanchez et al., 2013). This is especially noteworthy considering that young dancers often sacrifice friendships and other experiences in their commitment to dance. The pressure to succeed as well as limited economic means can cause anxiety and a weaker support system in their lives (Lopez, 2019; Sanchez et al., 2013). Rather, dancers can manage and reduce stress by looking after their mental health and self- worth, being proactive in the navigation of their career, and growing as an artist while living a life as a whole person (Kim & Tasker, 2020).
Interpersonal stressors
Interpersonal stressors (26 studies) are related to asymmetric power exerted by authority figures, perceived pressure and expectations from others, and body image pressure from peers and teachers. Several studies describe that these factors place tacit and rigid demands on the dancers (Benn and Walters, 2001; van Staden et al., 2009; Dantas et al., 2018; Haraldsen et al., 2021a). Power exerted by teachers and choreographers seem to influence dancers’ outward agreements with a set cultural system (Benn and Walters, 2001; Parker, 2011; Pickard, 2013; Dantas et al., 2018). Peers are often part of this system and influence, alongside the teachers, dancers’ body image, eating attitudes and overall ideals (Table 3). Consequently, in such an environment, the stressors hamper dancers’ performance-development and well-being (Critien & Ollis, 2006; Haraldsen et al., 2021; Harper, 2012; Lacaille et al., 2007; Stanway et al., 2020).
However, when teachers displayed supportive behavior, dance students appeared to digest and interpret such information not always as intended (Blevins et al., 2020). Also, students seemed to be affected by other sources than the training environment, such as media and social media (Blevins et al., 2020). Hence, even though dancers did report healthy learning conditions, they may not be engaged in healthy behaviors when under such external media pressure.
Cultural stressors
Cultural stressors describe factors inherent in dance culture, such as cultural hegemony, set physical ideals, narrow minded identity ideals, cult-like behaviour expectations, traditional gender roles, and hierarchical and top-down organisations. Ballet is described as an authoritarian, hierarchical, cult-like power achievement culture where dancers accept abuse and unreasonable behavior in a state of «silent conformity» (Benn and Walters, 2001; Parker, 2011). Part of this culture are set, physical ideals which affect dancers to strive for thinness to attain a ballet physique or ideal dancers’ body (Benn and Walters, 2001; Dryburgh and Fortin, 2010; Pickard, 2013; Mitchell et al., 2020). Other studies describe narrow minded identity ideals inherent in the dance culture. That means that dancers are expected to possess and display certain personality characteristics, such as being docile, humble, hard working, dedicated, mentally tough and persistent (van Staden et al., 2009; Parker, 2011; Aujla et al., 2014, 2015; Haraldsen et al., 2019, 2020). Finally, male adolescent dancers appear seven times more likely than the general public to be bullied, teased or harassed – regardless of their sexual orientation (Risner, 2014). Negativity, stereotypes, bias, and harassment are accepted as commonplace and thus expected, negotiated, and endured (Risner, 2014). In particular, male ballet dancers report engaging in a system that is characterized by gendered rules in both technique and performance, highly stigmatized as effeminate and gender codified (Haltom and Worthen, 2014). Consequently, these stressors affect dancers’ self-esteem and body image, also showing indications to result in perfectionistic tendencies, injuries, demotivation, eating disorders, obsessive passion and inadequate amount of sleep.
Therefore, studies suggest incorporating career management, self-management and small business skills into dance training. This can offer the students the chance to develop their individual strengths and interests that will empower them to create sustainable careers. However, psychological skills, such as goal setting, focus, simulation training and valuing individuality do not develop naturally and dancers can’t develop to their full potential without training these skills (Redding & Quested, 2006; Carratini, 2020; Klockare et al., 2011). Screenings, for example, can become a useful tool to identify mental health issues and aid the implementation of the above-mentioned psychological skills training in dancer’s schedules (Redding & Quested, 2006). Implementing psychological skill training and encouraging critical thinking, questioning authority, gaining perspective, and discussing how to cope with rejection will thus equip dancers for survival and success in a culture that might perceive physical characteristics as less ideal (Mitchell et al., 2021; Klockare et al., 2011; Carratini, 2020; Redding & Quested, 2006).
Situational stressors
Backlund, H., & Wallén, F. (2016). Pre-professionella balettdansares upplevelser och erfarenheter av dansrelaterade skador.
Bennett, D. (2009). Careers in dance: Beyond performance to the real world of work. Journal of Dance Education, 9(1), 27-34.
Blevins, P., Erskine, S., Hopper, L., & Moyle, G. (2020). Finding Your Balance: An Investigation of Recovery–Stress Balance in Vocational Dance Training. Journal of Dance Education, 20(1), 12-22.
Downs, S. V. C. (2013). Coping and injury in a professional ballet company: an investigation of stressors, appraisal, coping processes and injury in professional ballet dancers (Doctoral dissertation, University of Birmingham).
Fietze, I., Strauch, J., Holzhausen, M., Glos, M., Theobald, C., Lehnkering, H., & Penzel, T. (2009). Sleep quality in professional ballet dancers. Chronobiology international, 26(6), 1249-1262.
Kenny, S. J., Palacios-Derflingher, L., Shi, Q., Whittaker, J. L., & Emery, C. A. (2019). Association between previous injury and risk factors for future injury in preprofessional ballet and contemporary dancers. Clinical journal of sport medicine, 29(3), 209-217.
Liederbach, M., & Compagno, J. M. (2001). Psychological aspects of fatigue-related injuries in dancers. Journal of Dance Medicine & Science, 5(4), 116-120
Lopez, B. (2019). Dance students at a two year college: making sense of their academic, cultural, and social world. Research in Dance Education, 20(2), 174-183.
Macchi, R., & Crossman, J. (1996). After the fall: reflections of injured classical ballet dancers. Journal of Sport Behavior, 19(3), 221.
Mainwaring, L., Krasnow, D., & Young, L. (2003). A teacher’s guide to helping young dancers cope with psychological aspects of hip injuries. Journal of dance Education, 3(2), 57-64.
Nordin-Bates, S. M., Walker, I. J., Baker, J., Garner, J., Hardy, C., Irvine, S. & Blevins, P. (2011). Injury, imagery, and self-esteem in dance healthy minds in injured bodies?. Journal of Dance Medicine & Science, 15(2), 76-85.
Pentith, R., Moss, S., Lamb, K., & Edwards, C. (2020). Perfectionism Among Young Female Competitive Irish Dancers: Prevalence and Relationship with Injury Responses.
Polasek, K. M., & Roper, E. A. (2011). Negotiating the gay male stereotype in ballet and modern dance. Research in Dance Education, 12(2), 173-193.
Pollitt, E. E., & Hutt, K. (2021). Viewing Injury in Dancers from a Psychological Perspective-A Literature Review. Journal of Dance Medicine & Science, 25(2), 75-79.
Reis, N. M., Cardoso, A. A., de Araújo, C. R., Moratelli, J., Boing, L., Borgatto, A. F., & de Azevedo Guimarães, A. C. (2019). Quality of life is associated with fatigue among Brazilian professional dancers. Motricidade, 15(1), 33-38.
Risner, D. (2014). Bullying victimisation and social support of adolescent male dance students: an analysis of findings. Research in Dance Education, 15(2), 179-201.
Sanchez, E. N., Aujla, I. J., & Nordin-Bates, S. (2013). Cultural background variables in dance talent development: findings from the UK centres for advanced training. Research in Dance Education, 14(3), 260-278.
Stracciolini, A., Stein, C. J., Kinney, S., McCrystal, T., Pepin, M. J., & Meehan III, W. P. (2017). Associations between sedentary behaviors, sleep patterns, and BMI in young dancers attending a summer intensive dance training program. Journal of Dance Medicine & Science, 21(3), 102-108.
van Winden, D., van Rijn, R. M., Savelsbergh, G. J., Oudejans, R. R., Stubbe, J. H., van Winden, D., … & Stubbe, J. H. Limited coping skills, young age, and high BMI are risk factors for injuries in contemporary dance.
Interpersonal stressors
Alexias, G., & Dimitropoulou, E. (2011). The body as a tool: Professional classical ballet dancers’ embodiment. Research in Dance Education, 12(2), 87-104.
Aujla, I. J., Nordin-Bates, S., & Redding, E. (2014). A qualitative investigation of commitment to dance: findings from the UK Centres for Advanced Training. Research in dance education, 15(2), 138-160.
Aujla, I. J., Nordin-Bates, S. M., & Redding, E. (2015). Multidisciplinary predictors of adherence to contemporary dance training: findings from the UK Centres for Advanced Training. Journal of sports sciences, 33(15), 1564-1573.
Benn, T., & Walters, D. (2001). Between Scylla and Charybdis. Nutritional education versus body culture and the ballet aesthetic: The effects on the lives of female dancers. Research in dance education, 2(2), 139-154.
Blevins, P., Erskine, S., Moyle, G., & Hopper, L. (2020). Student and teacher attitudes towards overtraining and recovery in vocational dance training. Theatre, Dance and Performance Training, 11(1), 5-24.
Blevins, P., Erskine, S., Hopper, L., & Moyle, G. (2020). Finding Your Balance: An Investigation of Recovery–Stress Balance in Vocational Dance Training. Journal of Dance Education, 20(1), 12-22.
Bottamini, G. L. (2000). Ballet teachers: A source of perceived weight loss pressure in female ballet students. University of Ottawa (Canada).
Carr, S., & Wyon, M. (2003). The impact of motivational climate on dance students’ achievement goals, trait anxiety, and perfectionism. Journal of Dance Medicine & Science, 7(4), 105-114.
Dantas, A. G., Alonso, D. A., Sánchez-Miguel, P. A., & del Río Sánchez, C. (2018). Factors dancers associate with their body dissatisfaction. Body image, 25, 40-47.
de las Heras Fernández, R., Espada Mateos, M., Carrascal Dominguez, S., & Garcia Coll, V. (2020). Evaluation and analysis of emotional intelligence, mood and coping strategies in two Spanish dance companies. Research in Dance Education, 21(3), 231-244.
Dryburgh A. & Fortin S. (2010): Weighing in on surveillance: perception of the impact of surveillance on female ballet dancers’ health, Research in Dance Education, Volume 1, number 2
Green, J. (1999). Somatic authority and the myth of the ideal body in dance education. Dance research journal, 31(2), 80-100
Hancox, J. E., Quested, E., Ntoumanis, N., & Duda, J. L. (2017). Teacher-created social environment, basic psychological needs, and dancers’ affective states during class: A diary study. Personality and Individual Differences, 115, 137-143.
Hamilton L.; Hamilton, W.G.; Warren, M.P.; Keller, K. and Molnar, M. (1997): Factors contributing to the attrition rate in elite ballet students. Journal of Dance Medicine and Science, Volume 1, number 4.
Haraldsen, H. M., Halvari, H., Solstad, B. E., Abrahamsen, F. E., & Nordin-Bates, S. M. (2019). The role of perfectionism and controlling conditions in Norwegian elite junior performers’ motivational processes. Frontiers in psychology, 10, 1366.
Haraldsen, H. M., Abrahamsen, F. E., Solstad, B. E., & Halvari, H. (2021). Narrative Tensions in Strained Junior Elite Performers’ Experiences of Becoming Elite Performers. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 1767.
Heiland, T. L., Murray, D. S., & Edley, P. P. (2008). Body image of dancers in Los Angeles: the cult of slenderness and media influence among dance students. Research in Dance Education, 9(3), 257-275.
Kartawidjaja, J. E., & Cordero, E. D. (2013). Fat talk and body dissatisfaction among college dancers. Journal of Dance Education, 13(4), 122-129.
Kushida, M. A. (2017). The Environment and Identity Processes: The Dancer Identity as a Case Study (Doctoral dissertation, UC Riverside).
Macchi, R., & Crossman, J. (1996). After the fall: reflections of injured classical ballet dancers. Journal of Sport Behavior, 19(3), 221.
Nordin-Bates, S. M. (2020). Striving for Perfection or for Creativity? A Dancer’s Dilemma. Journal of dance education, 20(1), 23-34.
Skaardal, E. (2006). Kroppen som middel og symbol: en kvalitativ studie av unge jenters bearbeidelse av prestasjoner og kroppsidealer i dansen (Master’s thesis).
Walker, I. J., Nordin-Bates, S. M., & Redding, E. (2012). A mixed methods investigation of dropout among talented young dancers: Findings from the UK Centres for Advanced Training. Journal of Dance Medicine & Science, 16(2), 65-73.
Wenn, B., Mulholland, R., Timmons, W., & Zanker, Y. (2018). Towards a developing construct in dance education–exploring the relation of emotional intelligence to teacher’s sense of efficacy and teaching experience among dance education student teachers in the United Kingdom. Research in Dance Education, 19(1), 14-38.
Cultural stressors:
Adame, D. D., Radell, S. A., Johnson, T. C., & Cole, S. P. (1991). Physical fitness, body image, and locus of control in college women dancers and nondancers. Perceptual and motor skills, 72(1), 91-95.
Archinard, M., & Scherer, U. (1995). Training in classical dance in childhood and adolescence: What influence on bulimia nervosa in adult patients?. European Eating Disorders Review, 3(2), 111-116.
Batur, S., Kabakci, E., & Gulol, C. (2003). Maladaptive eating attitudes of elite and amateur Turkish dancers: are they at risk?. Eating and Weight Disorders-Studies on Anorexia, Bulimia and Obesity, 8(4), 263-267.
Bennett, D. (2009). Careers in dance: Beyond performance to the real world of work. Journal of Dance Education, 9(1), 27-34.
Benn, T., & Walters, D. (2001). Between Scylla and Charybdis. Nutritional education versus body culture and the ballet aesthetic: The effects on the lives of female dancers. Research in dance education, 2(2), 139-154.
Blevins, P., Erskine, S., Hopper, L., & Moyle, G. (2020). Finding Your Balance: An Investigation of Recovery–Stress Balance in Vocational Dance Training. Journal of Dance Education, 20(1), 12-22.
Blevins, P., Erskine, S., Moyle, G., & Hopper, L. (2020). Student and teacher attitudes towards overtraining and recovery in vocational dance training. Theatre, Dance and Performance Training, 11(1), 5-24.
Bonbright, J. M. (1995). Discriminating physiological, behavioral and psychological characteristics in eating disorders: Clinical and psychometric comparisons between clinically diagnosed patients, ballet dancers and controls (Doctoral dissertation, Temple University).
Bottamini, G. L. (2000). Ballet teachers: A source of perceived weight loss pressure in female ballet students. University of Ottawa (Canada).
Cahalan, R., Comber, L., Gaire, D., Quin, E., Redding, E., Ni Bhriain, O., & O’sullivan, K. (2019). Biopsychosocial characteristics of contemporary and Irish University-level student dancers a pilot study. Journal of Dance Medicine & Science, 23(2), 63-71.
Clements, L., & Nordin-Bates, S. M. (2020). Inspired or Inhibited? Choreographers’ Views on How Classical Ballet Training Shaped Their Creativity. Journal of Dance Education, 1-12.
Dantas, A. G., Alonso, D. A., Sánchez-Miguel, P. A., & del Río Sánchez, C. (2018). Factors dancers associate with their body dissatisfaction. Body image, 25, 40-47.
de las Heras Fernández, R., Espada Mateos, M., Carrascal Dominguez, S., & Garcia Coll, V. (2020). Evaluation and analysis of emotional intelligence, mood and coping strategies in two Spanish dance companies. Research in Dance Education, 21(3), 231-244.
Fietze, I., Strauch, J., Holzhausen, M., Glos, M., Theobald, C., Lehnkering, H., & Penzel, T. (2009). Sleep quality in professional ballet dancers. Chronobiology international, 26(6), 1249-1262.
Green, J. (1999). Somatic authority and the myth of the ideal body in dance education. Dance research journal, 31(2), 80-100
Haltom, T. M., & Worthen, M. G. (2014). Male ballet dancers and their performances of heteromasculinity. Journal of College Student Development, 55(8), 757-778.
Heiland, T. L., Murray, D. S., & Edley, P. P. (2008). Body image of dancers in Los Angeles: the cult of slenderness and media influence among dance students. Research in Dance Education, 9(3), 257-275.
Hoffer, D. L. (1981). The classical ballet dancer: a psycho-social analysis of the dance personality profile. Nova University.
Hrušová, D. (2015). Effect of dancing on subjective experiences and psychological state of dancers.
Kartawidjaja, J. E., & Cordero, E. D. (2013). Fat talk and body dissatisfaction among college dancers. Journal of Dance Education, 13(4), 122-129.
Kosmidou, E., Giannitsopoulou, E., & Moysidou, D. (2017). Social Physique Anxiety and pressure to be thin in adolescent ballet dancers, rhythmic gymnastics and swimming athletes. Research in Dance Education, 18(1), 23-33.
Kveton-Bohnert, L. A. (2017). The Voices of Classical Ballet Dancers: Alleviating Maladaptive Perfectionism through Resilience, Mindful Learning, and Self-Compassion (Doctoral dissertation, Saybrook University).
Li, Z. (2011). Adolescent males in dance: A closer look at their journey. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 82(7), 17-23.
Minton, S. C. (2001). Assessment of high school dance students’ self-esteem. Journal of Dance Education, 1(2), 63-73.
Mitchell, S. B., Haase, A. M., & Cumming, S. P. (2021). Of Grit and Grace: Negotiating Puberty, Surviving, and Succeeding in Professional Ballet. Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal, 1(aop), 1-12.
Mitchell, S. B., Haase, A. M., & Cumming, S. P. (2020). Experiences of delayed maturation in female vocational ballet students: An interpretative phenomenological analysis. Journal of adolescence, 80, 233-241.
Mitchell, S. B., Haase, A. M., Cumming, S. P., & Malina, R. M. (2017). Understanding growth and maturation in the context of ballet: a biocultural approach. Research in Dance Education, 18(3), 291-300.
Nieminen, P. (1998). Participation motives in relation to background and involvement variables among Finnish non-professional dancers. Dance Research Journal, 30(2), 53-70.
Nordin-Bates, S. M., Walker, I. J., & Redding, E. (2011). Correlates of disordered eating attitudes among male and female young talented dancers: Findings from the UK Centres for Advanced Training. Eating disorders, 19(3), 211-233.
Parker, R. (2011). An exploration of the identity issues faced by retiring male ballet dancers (Doctoral dissertation, University of Birmingham).
Petrides, K. V., Niven, L., & Mouskounti, T. (2006). The trait emotional intelligence of ballet dancers and musicians. Psicothema, 18, 101-107.
Pickard, A. (2013). Ballet body belief: Perceptions of an ideal ballet body from young ballet dancers. Research in Dance Education, 14(1), 3-19.
Pickard, A., & Bailey, R. (2009). Crystallising experiences among young elite dancers. Sport, Education and Society, 14(2), 165-181.
Polasek, K. M., & Roper, E. A. (2011). Negotiating the gay male stereotype in ballet and modern dance. Research in Dance Education, 12(2), 173-193.
Pollatou, E., Bakali, N., Theodorakis, Y., & Goudas, M. (2010). Body image in female professional and amateur dancers. Research in Dance Education, 11(2), 131-137.
Puddu, C. (1998). The relationship between stress and eating attitudes and behaviour in female dancers and field hockey players.
Risner, D. (2014). Bullying victimisation and social support of adolescent male dance students: an analysis of findings. Research in Dance Education, 15(2), 179-201.
Rodrigues, F. R., e Cunha, M. P., Castanheira, F., Bal, P. M., & Jansen, P. G. (2020). Person-job fit across the work lifespan–The case of classical ballet dancers. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 118, 103400.
Schluger, A. E. (2010). Disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in female college dance students: Comparison of modern dance and ballet dance majors. North American Journal of Psychology, 12(1), 117-128.
Skaardal, E. (2006). Kroppen som middel og symbol: en kvalitativ studie av unge jenters bearbeidelse av prestasjoner og kroppsidealer i dansen (Master’s thesis).
Slater, A., & Tiggemann, M. (2002). A test of objectification theory in adolescent girls. Sex Roles, 46(9), 343-349.
Solomon, R., Solomon, J., Micheli, L. J., Saunders, J. J., & Zurakowski, D. (2002). Using the test of attentional and interpersonal style (TAIS) for profiling and counseling dancers. Journal of Dance Medicine & Science, 6(4), 119-127.
Spadafora, A. (2010). Predictors of eating pathology in adolescents: a comparison of ballet dancers and non-dancers.
Swami, V., & Harris, A. S. (2012). Dancing toward positive body image? Examining body-related constructs with ballet and contemporary dancers at different levels. American Journal of Dance Therapy, 34(1), 39-52.
van Staden, A., Myburgh, C. P., & Poggenpoel, M. (2009). A psycho-educational model to enhance the self-development and mental health of classical dancers. Journal of Dance Medicine & Science, 13(1), 20-28.
Van Zelst, L., Clabaugh, A., & Morling, B. (2004). Dancers’ Body Esteem, Fitness Esteem, and Self-esteem in Three Contexts. Journal of Dance Education, 4(2), 48-57.
Walter, O., & Yanko, S. (2018). New observations on the influence of dance on body image and development of eating disorders. Research in Dance Education, 19(3), 240-251.
Wanke, E. M., Schmidt, M., Leslie-Spinks, J., Fischer, A., & Groneberg, D. A. (2015). Physical and mental workloads in professional dance teachers. Medical problems of performing artists, 30(1), 54-60
Wenn, B., Mulholland, R., Timmons, W., & Zanker, Y. (2018). Towards a developing construct in dance education–exploring the relation of emotional intelligence to teacher’s sense of efficacy and teaching experience among dance education student teachers in the United Kingdom. Research in Dance Education, 19(1), 14-38.
