Personal qualities
Alike Resilience Research in Sport could five main themes of psychological factors be identified in dance literature. Each will now be presented in turn.
Positive personality
Positive personality comprised two sub-categories: Proactivity and Optimism.
Proactivity
Sport research describes proactivity as «the extend to which people take action to influence their environments» (Fletcher & Sarkar, 2013; Bateman & Crant, 1993, p. 103). Albeit proactivity not being mentioned as an own theme in the dance literature, aligned the strive for self actualization, self assessment, self efficacy, self-management, autonomy, self development, flexibility and versatility with the aforementioned description.
Optimism
Seen as either an expectancy for successful outcomes (Fletcher & Sarkar, 2013) or as an approach explaining positive and negative events (Fletcher & Sarkar, 2013) was optimism a personal quality that researchers were often left wanting in dance. Whether this was in relation to injury, emotional intelligence, eating disorders or general dance training (Wenn et al., 2018; Kveton-Bohnert, 2020; Senning, 2020; Macchi & Crossman, 1996), optimism was identified as important for mental well-being and the demonstration of resilience but in dire need to be nurtured and further investigated in dance.
Motivational quality
Teaching and learning affect the conditions and personal factors such as an individual’s motivation and psychological functioning (Haraldsen et al., 2020; Hancox, 2014; Aujla et al., 2014, 2015; Quested & Duda, 2009). Task-oriented climates have, in this respect, shown to positively impact dancer’s mental health and increase intrinsic motivation (Quested & Duda, 2009; Aujla et al., 2014; Hancox et al., 2017), while ego-oriented climates that punish mistakes and enhance competition and extrinsic motivation affected dancers negatively. Consequently, dancers regulated by Self determined motivation appeared more robust, and engaged in a more healthy, harmonious way in their development (Haraldsen et al., 2020). Performers regulated by controlled motivation, on the other hand, showed signs of low self-esteem, perfectionism, obsessiveness, anxiety, negative affect, and exhaustion (Haraldsen et al., 2020). Thus, optimal motivational quality as well as possessing autonomous values and beliefs are important factors positively influencing psychological resilience in dance (Fletcher & Sarkar, 2013; Haraldsen et al., 2020; 2021).
Confidence
Confidence can be seen as the degree of certainty one possesses about their ability to be successful in dance and has been identified as an important factor in the resilience-stress-performance relationship in sport (Fletcher & Sarkar, 2013; 2012). Self awareness, self-esteem and self-acceptance were, alongside studies that specifically mentioned confidence, the most referred qualities in dance literature. These were often reported in relation to the use of body image, creativity, career transitions, gender identity and talent development and identified as an especially important factor to withstand pressure, ideals and predetermined identities in the dance world (Aujla et al., 2014; Haltom et al., 2014; Green, 1999; Dearborne et al., 2006; Watson et al., 2012; Van Winden et al., 2020). However, alike the previous factors, confidence and its related themes were deemed in need to be developed, nurtured, strengthened and further researched in dance.
Relatedness
Sport research sees building of relationships with- and the perception of social support from friends, family, peers, teachers and organisations as an important factor underpinning the resilience-stress-performance relationship in athletes (Fletcher & Sarkar, 2013). Dance literature aligns with these findings by pointing repeatedly to perceived social support’s stress-buffering effect (Fletcher & Sarkar, 2013; Aujla et al., 2014; Li, 2011; Walker et al.,2012). In the latter, foci of interest such as gender identity, injuries, transitions (career, puberty) and social backgrounds all stress the importance of significant others, despite the dance environment being, paradoxically so, also often described as highly competitive (Haraldsen et al, 2019; 2020).
Harmonious passion
Research indicates that the traditional values, such as the notion of dancers needing to sacrifice everything for their art might lead to the emergence of obsessive passion. The latter is described as a rigid persistence to participate in dance, often resulting in dancing taking up a disproportionate importance in an individual’s identity and leaving little space for other interests (Aujla et al., 2015). Harmonious passion, on the other hand, is seen as a flexible approach to involvement in dance, in which the individual participates of his/her own volition and the activity usually not dominating his/her identity (Aujla et al., 2015). The latter entails to strike a dance/life balance which offers room for the building and maintenance of friendships and nurturing other interests/ hobbies outside of the dance realm. Consequently, this will strengthen support systems and shaping of flexible identities, increase motivation and adherence as well as potentially easen career transitions (Aujla et al., 2015).
Personal qualities
Positive personality
Proactivity
Benn, T., & Walters, D. (2001). Between Scylla and Charybdis. Nutritional education versus body culture and the ballet aesthetic: The effects on the lives of fe- male dancers. Research in dance education, 2(2), 139-154.
Bennett, D. (2009). Careers in dance: Beyond performance to the real world of work. Journal of Dance Education, 9(1), 27-34.
Blevins, P., Erskine, S., Hopper, L., & Moyle, G. (2020). Finding Your Balance: An Investigation of Recovery–Stress Balance in Vocational Dance Training. Journal of Dance Education, 20(1), 12-22.
Blevins, P., Erskine, S., Moyle, G., & Hop- per, L. (2020). Student and teacher attitudes towards overtraining and recovery in vocational dance training. Theatre, Dance and Performance Training, 11(1), 5- 24.
Carattini, C. M. (2020). Psychological skills in ballet training: An approach to peda- gogy for the fulfilment of student potential (Doctoral dissertation, Queensland University of Technology).
Clements, L., & Nordin-Bates, S. M. (2020). Inspired or Inhibited? Choreographers’ Views on How Classical Ballet Training Shaped Their Creativity. Journal of Dance Education, 1-12.
de las Heras Fernández, R., Espada Mateos, M., Carrascal Dominguez, S., & Garcia Coll, V. (2020). Evaluation and anal- ysis of emotional intelligence, mood and coping strategies in two Spanish dance companies. Research in Dance Education, 21(3), 231-244.
Downs, S. V. C. (2013). Coping and injury in a professional ballet company: an inves- tigation of stressors, appraisal, coping pro- cesses and injury in professional ballet dancers (Doctoral dissertation, University of Birmingham).
Flower, L. (2019). Spiritual experiences of post-performance career ballet dancers: a qualitative study of how peak perfor- mance spiritual lived experiences continued into and influenced later teaching lives. Research in Dance Education, 20(2), 184-196
Hancox, J. E., Quested, E., Ntoumanis, N., & Duda, J. L. (2017). Teacher-created so- cial environment, basic psychological needs, and dancers’ affective states during class: A diary study. Personality and Indi- vidual Differences, 115, 137-143.
Hancox, J. E. (2014). Examination of the social-environmental and motivational processes operating in dance contexts: a self-determination theory approach (Doctoral dissertation, University of Birmingham)
Harper, S. (2012). A critical comparative study of career transition policy, practice and experiences for ballet company dancers and musical theatre independent dancers (Doctoral dissertation, University of Birmingham).
Karin, J., & Nordin-Bates, S. M. (2020). Enhancing Creativity and Managing Perfectionism in Dancers Through Implicit Learning and Sensori-Kinetic Imagery. Journal of Dance Education, 20(1), 1-11.
Kim, H., Tasker, S. L., & Shen, Y. (2020). How to persevere in a ballet performance career: exploring personal wisdom of retired professional ballet dancers. Research in Dance Education, 1-26.
Kveton-Bohnert, L. A. (2017). The Voices of Classical Ballet Dancers: Alleviating Mala- daptive Perfectionism through Resilience, Mindful Learning, and Self-Compassion (Doctoral dissertation, Saybrook University).
Mainwaring, L., Krasnow, D., & Young, L. (2003). A teacher’s guide to helping young dancers cope with psychological aspects of hip injuries. Journal of dance Education, 3(2), 57-64.
Parker, R. (2011). An exploration of the identity issues faced by retiring male ballet dancers (Doctoral dissertation, University of Birmingham).
Pickard, A. (2013). Ballet body belief: Per- ceptions of an ideal ballet body from young ballet dancers. Research in Dance Education, 14(1), 3-19.
Pickard, A., & Bailey, R. (2009). Crystallis- ing experiences among young elite dancers. Sport, Education and Society, 14(2), 165-181.
Sanchez, E. N., Aujla, I. J., & Nordin-Bates, S. (2013). Cultural background variables in dance talent development: findings from the UK centres for advanced training. Re- search in Dance Education, 14(3), 260-278
van Staden, A., Myburgh, C. P., & Poggen- poel, M. (2009). A psycho-educational model to enhance the self-development and mental health of classical dancers. Journal of Dance Medicine & Science, 13(1), 20-28
Van Zelst, L., Clabaugh, A., & Morling, B. (2004). Dancers’ Body Esteem, Fitness Es- teem, and Self-esteem in Three Contexts. Journal of Dance Education, 4(2), 48-57.
Wanke, E. M., Schmidt, M., Leslie-Spinks, J., Fischer, A., & Groneberg, D. A. (2015). Physical and mental workloads in profes- sional dance teachers. Medical problems of performing artists, 30(1), 54-60
Optimism
Kveton-Bohnert, L. A. (2017). The Voices of Classical Ballet Dancers: Alleviating Maladaptive Perfectionism through Resilience, Mindful Learning, and Self-Compassion (Doctoral dissertation, Saybrook Univer- sity).
Macchi, R., & Crossman, J. (1996). After the fall: reflections of injured classical ballet dancers. Journal of Sport Behavior, 19(3), 221.
van Staden, A., Myburgh, C. P., & Poggen- poel, M. (2009). A psycho-educational model to enhance the self-development and mental health of classical dancers. Journal of Dance Medicine & Science, 13(1), 20-28.
Wenn, B., Mulholland, R., Timmons, W., & Zanker, Y. (2018). Towards a developing construct in dance education–exploring the relation of emotional intelligence to teacher’s sense of efficacy and teaching experience among dance education stu- dent teachers in the United Kingdom. Re- search in Dance Education, 19(1), 14-38.
Confidence
Aujla, I. J., Nordin-Bates, S. M., Redding, E., & Jobbins, V. (2014). Developing talent among young dancers: Findings from the UK Centres for Advanced Training. Thea- tre, dance and performance training, 5(1), 15-30.
Aujla, I. J., Nordin-Bates, S., & Redding, E. (2014). A qualitative investigation of com- mitment to dance: findings from the UK Centres for Advanced Training. Research in dance education, 15(2), 138-160.
Aujla, I. J., Nordin-Bates, S. M., & Redding, E. (2015). Multidisciplinary predictors of adherence to contemporary dance train- ing: findings from the UK Centres for Advanced Training. Journal of sports sciences, 33(15), 1564-1573
Benn, T., & Walters, D. (2001). Between Scylla and Charybdis. Nutritional education versus body culture and the ballet aesthetic: The effects on the lives of female dancers. Research in dance education, 2(2), 139-154.
Cahalan, R., Comber, L., Gaire, D., Quin, E., Redding, E., Ni Bhriain, O., & O’sullivan, K. (2019). Biopsychosocial characteristics of contemporary and Irish University-level student dancers a pilot study. Journal of Dance Medicine & Science, 23(2), 63-71
Dearborn, K., Harring, K., Young, C., & O’Rourke, E. (2006). Mirror and phrase dif- ficulty influence dancer attention and body satisfaction. Journal of Dance Educa- tion, 6(4), 116-123.
de las Heras Fernández, R., Espada Mateos, M., Carrascal Dominguez, S., & Garcia Coll, V. (2020). Evaluation and anal- ysis of emotional intelligence, mood and coping strategies in two Spanish dance companies. Research in Dance Education, 21(3), 231-244.
Green, J. 1999. Somatic authority and the myth of the ideal body in dance education. Dance Research Journal, 31(2): 80–100
Haltom, T. M., & Worthen, M. G. (2014). Male ballet dancers and their perfor- mances of heteromasculinity. Journal of College Student Development, 55(8), 757- 778.
Klockare, E., Gustafsson, H., & Nordin- Bates, S. M. (2011). An interpretative phe- nomenological analysis of how profes- sional dance teachers implement psychological skills training in practice. Research in dance education, 12(3), 277-293.
Kushida, M. A. (2017). The Environment and Identity Processes: The Dancer Identity as a Case Study (Doctoral dissertation, UC Riverside).
Li, Z. (2011). Adolescent males in dance: A closer look at their journey. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 82(7), 17-23.
Lussier‐Ley, C., & Durand‐Bush, N. (2009). Exploring the role of feel in the creative experiences of modern dancers: a realist tale. Research in Dance Education, 10(3), 199-217.
Mitchell, S. B., Haase, A. M., & Cumming, S. P. (2021). Of Grit and Grace: Negotiating Puberty, Surviving, and Succeeding in Pro- fessional Ballet. Women in Sport and Phys- ical Activity Journal, 1(aop), 1-12.
Mitchell, S. B., Haase, A. M., & Cumming, S. P. (2020). Experiences of delayed maturation in female vocational ballet stu- dents: An interpretative phenomenological analysis. Journal of adolescence, 80, 233-241.
Mitchell, S. B., Haase, A. M., Cumming, S. P., & Malina, R. M. (2017). Understanding growth and maturation in the context of ballet: a biocultural approach. Research in Dance Education, 18(3), 291-300.
Nordin-Bates, S. M. (2020). Striving for Perfection or for Creativity? A Dancer’s Dilemma. Journal of dance education, 20(1), 23-34.
Parker, R. (2011). An exploration of the identity issues faced by retiring male ballet dancers (Doctoral dissertation, University of Birmingham).
Pentith, R., Moss, S., Lamb, K., & Edwards, C. (2020). Perfectionism Among Young Female Competitive Irish Dancers: Preva- lence and Relationship with Injury Responses.
Pickard, A. (2013). Ballet body belief: Per- ceptions of an ideal ballet body from young ballet dancers. Research in Dance Education, 14(1), 3-19.
Pickard, A., & Bailey, R. (2009). Crystallis- ing experiences among young elite dancers. Sport, Education and Society, 14(2), 165-181.
Peters, P. J. (2020). Grit for Dance Stu- dents: What, Why, and How. Dance Education in Practice, 6(1), 7-12
Polasek, K. M., & Roper, E. A. (2011). Ne- gotiating the gay male stereotype in ballet and modern dance. Research in Dance Ed- ucation, 12(2), 173-193
Radell, S. A., Keneman, M. L., Adame, D. D., & Cole, S. P. (2014). My body and its reflection: a case study of eight dance stu- dents and the mirror in the ballet class- room. Research in Dance Education, 15(2), 161-178
Risner, D. (2000). Making dance, making sense: Epistemology and choreog- raphy. Research in dance education, 1(2), 155-1
Sanchez, E. N., Aujla, I. J., & Nordin-Bates, S. (2013). Cultural background variables in dance talent development: findings from the UK centres for advanced training. Re- search in Dance Education, 14(3), 260-278
Tvedt, M. S. (2011). Danseelevers mål- orientering og opplevelse av det motiva- sjonelle klima i relasjon til selvoppfatning og emosjonelle problem (Master’s thesis, University of Stavanger, Norway).
van Winden, D., van Rijn, R. M., Savels- bergh, G. J., Oudejans, R. R., & Stubbe, J. H. (2020). Limited Coping Skills, Young Age, and High BMI Are Risk Factors for Injuries in Contemporary Dance: A 1-Year Prospective Study. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1
Van Zelst, L., Clabaugh, A., & Morling, B. (2004). Dancers’ Body Esteem, Fitness Esteem, and Self-esteem in Three Contexts. Journal of Dance Education, 4(2), 48-57.
Watson, D. E., Nordin-Bates, S. M., & Chappell, K. A. (2012). Facilitating and nurturing creativity in pre-vocational dancers: Findings from the UK Centres for Advanced Training. Research in Dance Educa- tion, 13(2), 153-17
Wenn, B., Mulholland, R., Timmons, W., & Zanker, Y. (2018). Towards a developing construct in dance education–exploring the relation of emotional intelligence to teacher’s sense of efficacy and teaching experience among dance education stu- dent teachers in the United Kingdom. Re- search in Dance Education, 19(1), 14-38
Motivational quality
Benn, T., & Walters, D. (2001). Between Scylla and Charybdis. Nutritional education versus body culture and the ballet aesthetic: The effects on the lives of female dancers. Research in dance education, 2(2), 139-154.
Cahalan, R., Comber, L., Gaire, D., Quin, E., Redding, E., Ni Bhriain, O., & O’sullivan, K. (2019). Biopsychosocial characteristics of contemporary and Irish University-level student dancers a pilot study. Journal of Dance Medicine & Science, 23(2), 63-71
Carattini, C. M. (2020). Psychological skills in ballet training: An approach to pedagogy for the fulfilment of student potential (Doctoral dissertation, Queensland Univer- sity of Technology).
Carr, S., & Wyon, M. (2003). The impact of motivational climate on dance students’ achievement goals, trait anxiety, and per- fectionism. Journal of Dance Medicine & Science, 7(4), 105-114.
Hancox, J. E., Quested, E., Ntoumanis, N., & Duda, J. L. (2017). Teacher-created so- cial environment, basic psychological needs, and dancers’ affective states during class: A diary study. Personality and Indi- vidual Differences, 115, 137-143.
Hancox, J. E. (2014). Examination of the social-environmental and motivational processes operating in dance contexts: a self-determination theory approach (Doctoral dissertation, University of Birmingham)
Haraldsen, H. M., Abrahamsen, F. E., Sol- stad, B. E., & Halvari, H. (2021). Narrative Tensions in Strained Junior Elite Perform- ers’ Experiences of Becoming Elite Per- formers. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 1767.
Haraldsen, H. M., Halvari, H., Solstad, B. E., Abrahamsen, F. E., & Nordin-Bates, S. M. (2019). The role of perfectionism and con- trolling conditions in Norwegian elite jun- ior performers’ motivational processes. Frontiers in psychology, 10, 1366.
Haraldsen, H. M., Nordin-Bates, S. M., Abrahamsen, F. E., & Halvari, H. (2020). Thriving, Striving, or Just Surviving? TD Learning Conditions, Motivational Pro- cesses and Well-Being Among Norwegian Elite Performers in Music, Ballet, and Sport. Roeper Review, 42(2), 109-125. Haraldsen, H. M., Solstad, B. E., Ivarsson, A., Halvari, H., & Abrahamsen, F. E. (2020). Change in basic need frustration in rela- tion to perfectionism, anxiety, and perfor- mance in elite junior performers. Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports, 30(4), 754-765
Lacaille, N., Koestner, R., & Gaudreau, P. (2007). On the value of intrinsic rather than traditional achievement goals for performing artists: A short-term prospec- tive study. International Journal of Music Education, 25(3), 245-257
Quested, E., & Duda, J. L. (2009). Percep- tions of the motivational climate, need satisfaction, and indices of well-and ill-being among hip hop dancers. Journal of Dance Medicine & Science, 13(1), 10-19.
Nieminen, P. (1998). Participation motives in relation to background and involvement variables among Finnish non-professional dancers. Dance Research Journal, 30(2), 53-70.
Nieminen, P., Varstala, V., & Manninen, M. (2001). Goal orientation and perceived purposes of dance among Finnish dance students: A pilot study. Research in dance education, 2(2), 175-193.
Rodrigues, F. R., e Cunha, M. P., Cas- tanheira, F., Bal, P. M., & Jansen, P. G. (2020). Person-job fit across the work lifespan–The case of classical ballet dancers. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 118, 103400
Sanchez, E. N., Aujla, I. J., & Nordin-Bates, S. (2013). Cultural background variables in dance talent development: findings from the UK centres for advanced training. Re- search in Dance Education, 14(3), 260-278
Harmonious Passion
Aujla, I. J., Nordin-Bates, S., & Redding, E. (2014). A qualitative investigation of com- mitment to dance: findings from the UK Centres for Advanced Training. Research in dance education, 15(2), 138-160.
Aujla, I. J., Nordin-Bates, S. M., & Redding, E. (2015). Multidisciplinary predictors of adherence to contemporary dance train- ing: findings from the UK Centres for Ad- vanced Training. Journal of sports sciences, 33(15), 1564-1573
Benn, T., & Walters, D. (2001). Between Scylla and Charybdis. Nutritional education versus body culture and the ballet aesthetic: The effects on the lives of female dancers. Research in dance education, 2(2), 139-154.
Cahalan, R., Comber, L., Gaire, D., Quin, E., Redding, E., Ni Bhriain, O., & O’sullivan, K. (2019). Biopsychosocial characteristics of contemporary and Irish University-level student dancers a pilot study. Journal of Dance Medicine & Science, 23(2), 63-71
Peters, P. J. (2020). Grit for Dance Students: What, Why, and How. Dance Education in Practice, 6(1), 7-12
Walker, I. J., Nordin-Bates, S. M., & Red- ding, E. (2012). A mixed methods investi- gation of dropout among talented young dancers: Findings from the UK Centres for Advanced Training. Journal of Dance Medi- cine & Science, 16(2), 65-73.
Walker, I. J., Nordin-Bates, S. M., & Red- ding, E. (2011). Characteristics of talented dancers and age group differences: find- ings from the UK Centres for Advanced Training. High Ability Studies, 22(1), 43- 60.
Wanke, E. M., Schmidt, M., Leslie-Spinks, J., Fischer, A., & Groneberg, D. A. (2015). Physical and mental workloads in profes- sional dance teachers. Medical problems of performing artists, 30(1), 54-60
Relatedness
Demelius, Y. (2003). Steps of a dance pro- duction: the working lives of professionals at a dance company (Doctoral disserta- tion, Concordia University).
Kim, H., Tasker, S. L., & Shen, Y. (2020). How to persevere in a ballet performance career: exploring personal wisdom of retired professional ballet dancers. Research in Dance Education, 1-26.
Lopez, B. (2019). Dance students at a two year college: making sense of their aca- demic, cultural, and social world. Research in Dance Education, 20(2), 174-183
Mainwaring, L., Krasnow, D., & Young, L. (2003). A teacher’s guide to helping young dancers cope with psychological aspects of hip injuries. Journal of dance Education, 3(2), 57-64.
Mitchell, S. B., Haase, A. M., & Cumming, S. P. (2021). Of Grit and Grace: Negotiating Puberty, Surviving, and Succeeding in Pro- fessional Ballet. Women in Sport and Phys- ical Activity Journal, 1(aop), 1-12.
Mitchell, S. B., Haase, A. M., & Cumming, S. P. (2020). Experiences of delayed maturation in female vocational ballet stu- dents: An interpretative phenomenological analysis. Journal of adolescence, 80, 233-241.
Mitchell, S. B., Haase, A. M., Cumming, S. P., & Malina, R. M. (2017). Understanding growth and maturation in the context of ballet: a biocultural approach. Research in Dance Education, 18(3), 291-300.
Nordin-Bates, S. M. (2020). Striving for Perfection or for Creativity? A Dancer’s Dilemma. Journal of dance education, 20(1), 23-34.
Pollitt, E. E., & Hutt, K. (2021). Viewing In- jury in Dancers from a Psychological Perspective-A Literature Review. Journal of Dance Medicine & Science, 25(2), 75-79
Reis, N. M., Cardoso, A. A., de Araújo, C. R., Moratelli, J., Boing, L., Borgatto, A. F., & de Azevedo Guimarães, A. C. (2019). Quality of life is associated with fatigue among Brazilian professional dancers. Motricidade, 15(1), 33-38.
Risner, D. (2000). Making dance, making sense: Epistemology and choreog- raphy. Research in dance education, 1(2), 155-1
Rodrigues, F. R., e Cunha, M. P., Cas- tanheira, F., Bal, P. M., & Jansen, P. G. (2020). Person-job fit across the work lifespan–The case of classical ballet dancers. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 118, 103400
Sanchez, E. N., Aujla, I. J., & Nordin-Bates, S. (2013). Cultural background variables in dance talent development: findings from the UK centres for advanced training. Re- search in Dance Education, 14(3), 260-278
